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植物綜合酵素(原液)

The fluctuation of carbohydrates and nitrogen compounds

Abstract:

Enzymes are catalysts. Most are proteins. (A few ribonucleoprotein enzymes have been discovered and, for some of these, the catalytic activity is in the RNA part rather than the protein part. Link to discussion of these ribozymes.)

Enzymes bind temporarily to one or more of the reactants of the reaction they catalyze. In doing so, they lower the amount of activation energy needed and thus speed up the reaction.

Enzymes are biological catalysts. A catalyst is defined as a substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing any change. Enzymes catalyze most chemical reactions that take place within living beings. For example, in the body there are about 21 enzymes involved in the conversion of a molecule of glucose to carbon dioxide and water, accompanied by release of energy. Without these enzymes metabolism would stop and so would life. Enzymes are capable of enormous rate enhancement of chemical reactions that take place in biological systems. They can accelerate the rate of a reaction from anywhere between a thousand-fold to a billion-fold, and this rate enhancement is necessary to sustain life.

Examples:

Catalase: It catalyzes the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen. 2H2O2 -> 2H2O + O2 One molecule of catalase can break 40 million molecules of hydrogen peroxide each second.

Carbonic anhydrase: It is found in red blood cells where it catalyzes the reaction CO2 + H2O <-> H2CO3 It enables red blood cells to transport carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. [Discussion] One molecule of carbonic anhydrase can process one million molecules of CO2 each second. Acetylcholinesterase It catalyzes the breakdown of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine at several types of synapses as well as at the neuromuscular junction — the specialized synapse that triggers the contraction of skeletal muscle. One molecule of acetylcholinesterase breaks down 25,000 molecules of acetylcholine each second. This speed makes possible the rapid "resetting" of the synapse for transmission of another nerve impulse.

The present study associates the response to flooding of potted wax-apple trees, Syzygium samarangense Merr. et Perry, with changes in carbon and nitrogen metabolism. In wax-apple leaves, the starch content conspicuously increased after 14 days of flooding, and the total nitrogen content decreased after 35 days of flooding. In roots, concentrations of total soluble sugars significantly increased after 14 days of flooding. The accumulation of starch in flooded wax-apple leaves and increased soluble sugar content in roots apparently were the result of the reduction of growth and metabolic activities in roots after flooding, which reduced the sink demand of carbohydrates. Soluble protein concentration significantly decreased after 7 days of flooding, but remained similar among 14-, 28- and 42-day flooding treatments. Free amino acid content of flooded plants was significantly higher than that of the control at all sampling dates. The activity of glutamine synthetase in leaves significantly decreased after 7 days of flooding, but was higher than the control`s at 14, 28 and 42 days of flooding. In wax-apple roots, content of soluble protein, free amino acids, ammonia and the activity of nitrate reductase and glutamine synthetase all decreased significantly after flooding. Apparently, nitrogen metabolism was restricted in the roots during flooded conditions.

Introduction:

In general, flooding has an adverse effect on fruit trees. In Taiwan, constant flooding of wax-apple tree for 45 days during the summer not only advances the harvest period to the following December, but also increases harvest intervals and productivity . Long-term flooding results in soil anoxia, which restricts root growth and causes a metabolic imbalance between shoots and roots. Zvareva and Bartkov (1976) demonstrated that flooding decreased carbohydrate translocation from the leaves to the roots of soybean. Similar effects have also been found in Saxifraga tormentosa, purple flower alfalfa. The reduction of photosynthate translocation to roots under flooding stress might have been due to the reduction of carbohydrate utilization in roots and Davis, or to depression of the photosynthate transport system. Therefore, under flooding conditions, although the photosynthetic rate in leaves declines, starch accumulates。

Restriction of the absorption of mineral nutrients in roots under flooding usually results in lower nitrogen content in the tissues of flood-intolerant plants. Oxygen deficiency restricts protein synthesis in roots and accelerates anoxic metabolism. Therefore, under flooding stress, the composition and quantity of proteins and amino acids, and the activities of key enzymes involved in nitrate reduction and ammonia assimilation, will all be affected。

Wax-apple tree, a flood-tolerant species, is expected to have a different carbon and nitrogen metabolism response to flooding than flood-intolerant plants. Thus, the present study analyzed the variation of carbon and nitrogen contents in the leaves and roots with and without flooding. It also evaluated the impact of flooding on the activities of nitrate reductase and glutamine synthetase.

Materials and Methods

Plant Preparation and Flooding Treatments

Experiments were performed under open field conditions without fertilization on three-year-old wax-apple plants (Syzygium samarangense Merr. et Perry), grown in 16-L non-woven fabric bags with bark compost as a growth medium. Eighteen bagged plants were randomly divided into two groups: (A) 9 non-flooded plants, and (B) 9 flooded plants. Plants in Group A were watered once daily until runoff. Plants in Group B were flooded by immersing the bags in 30-L plastic buckets for up to 42 days and then draining. Four fully expanded leaves on the most recent emerged flushes of each tree were sampled before flooding, and at the 7th, 14th, 21st, 28th, 35th, and 42nd days of flooding and also, at the 7th and 14th days after the pots were drained. Leaves from three plants were pooled to make a single replicate. Each treatment had 3 replicates. The leaves were oven-dried and ground to powder for the determination of reducing sugars, total soluble sugars, starch, and total nitrogen An additional twenty two-year-old trees, about 150 cm in height, were grown in 7-L pots containing a field soil : bark compost : peat (2 : 1 : 1, v/v/v) mixture. Trees were randomly divided into five groups. Except for the non-flooded control group, plants of the other four groups were individually flooded in 17-L plastic buckets for 7, 14, 28 or 42 days, respectively, and then allowed to drain. Right after drainage, leaves and fibrous roots from each plant were immediately sampled to analyze the contents in free amino acids, soluble proteins, ammonia-nitrogen, and the activities of nitrate reductase and glutamine synthetase. About 10 g of fibrous roots from each plant were washed and dried for the determination of carbohydrates. Each tree was treated as a replicate, and each treatment had four replicates.

Carbohydrates and Total Nitrogen Analyses

Oven-dried leaf or root powder of 0.1 g was put into a 50 ml centrifuge tube, 10 ml of distilled water was added, and the mixture incubated at 30°C in a water bath shaker for 3 h. After incubation, the liquid sample was centrifuged at 12,000 g for 10 min. The supernatant was then used to determine the content of reducing sugars by the dinitrosalicylate method, and the content of total soluble sugars by the method of Dubois et al. . The residue, oven-dried at 80°C overnight, was used to determine the content of starch by the method of Yoshida et al. The total nitrogen was determined by the micro-Kjeldahl method.

Analyses of Nitrogen Compound and Nitrate Reductase and Glutamine Synthetase Activities:

Leaves and fibrous roots of 2 g each were individually mixed with 1 g of sea sand and ground in 5 ml cold 0.1M phosphate buffer (pH=7.0) at 4°C. Crude extract was centrifuged at 20,000 g at 2°C for 20 min. The supernatant was filtered with Miracloth and was used with the Lowry method  to determine the amount of soluble protein, with the Rosen method  to determine the amount of free amino acids, and with by Nessler`s reagent (Thompson and Morrison, to determine the amount of ammonia-nitrogen. The nitrate reductase activity was analyzed according to the method of Jaworski, and the glutamine synthetase activity was determined by the method of Elliott.

Results and Discussion:

Carbohydrate content in wax-apple leaves showed inconsistent changes during flooding treatments. Reducing sugar content was significantly higher than the control's at the 42nd day of flooding and the 7th day after draining. The total soluble sugar content basically remained similar in the two treatments, except that the flooded treatment was significantly higher than that of control during the 4th week of flooding and the 1st week after pots were drained; the starch content was significantly higher than control's after 14 days of flooding . Overall, flooding treatments increased the total carbohydrate content in leaves, mostly due to the accumulation of starch. Similar leaf carbohydrate accumulation under flood conditions has been reported for sunflower , purple flower alfalfa, sweet orange, pine, and bitter melon. Starch accumulation in leaves after flooding has been attributed to reduced translocation of carbohydrates from leaves to roots and to the retardation of growth and metabolism in roots which decreased carbohydrates apparently demand.

Reducing sugars and starch content in roots did not vary significantly between the two treatments, but soluble sugar content did significantly increase after 14 days of flooding. This is similar to the response of purple flower alfalfa . Barta noted that the anoxic condition in roots will restrict the translocation in phloem. Topa and Cheeseman  suggested that root systems possessing aerenchyma cells may facilitate translocation of photosynthates. Schumacher and Smucker  have also indicated that the C translocated to the roots of Phaseolus vulgaris under flooding was not metabolized by glycolytic enzymes in roots. Therefore, starch accumulation in wax-apple leaves and the increase of soluble sugars in the roots could be related to the reduction of growth and metabolic activity of roots under flooding, which further reduces carbohydrate demand in roots.

It has been reported that total nitrogen content in plant tissue usually decreases under flooding stress in various fruit trees, such as citrus, apple , avocado,and blueberry. For the wax-apple tree in the present study, total nitrogen content in leaves after 35 days of flooding was significantly lower than the control`s while total carbohydrate increased, which resulted in a significant increase in C/N ratio (total carbohydrate / total nitrogen). The carbohydrate-nitrogen ratio in fruit trees has often been associated with bud formation, flowering, and fruiting, but this hypothesis has also been found to vary with species. There are no apparent references that elucidate the special response of flowering advancing to flooding.

DESCRIPTION:

The digestive system requires a variety of enzymes to break down food into simple components that can be used by the body. CompleteGest®† provides a combination of plant enzymes to support complete digestion of all types of nutrients, such as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.† The blend of enzymes in CompleteGest®† is unique because they are active across a broad pH range in the digestive tract.† This formula contains no animal products in the ingredients or the capsule components; it is a vegetarian formula.

Proprietary Plant Enzyme Blend††
(amylase, protease, lipase, lactase, phytase, cellulase, sucrase, and maltase)

Enzymes are complex proteins that are produced by living cells and initiate or catalyze specific biochemical reactions in the body.1 Each enzyme has a specific action it carries out. This action is made possible by the enzyme's ability to interact with and cause changes to occur in its unique substrate or set of substrates.

Enzymes are present in the digestive juices. They act upon food, breaking down the complex food components into simpler ones that can be used by the body for energy.2 Digestion cannot take place without the enzymes that are produced in our bodies or that are ingested in foods. Therefore, the food that we eat would not be absorbed and utilized were it not for the actions of enzymes.

There are many enzymes that are part of the digestion process. The three main types of enzymes involved in digestion are amylase, protease, and lipase. Enzymes that break down the starch (carbohydrate) in food are called amylases. Proteases break down the protein in food and lipases break down fat.

Other enzymes, such as sucrase, lactase, and maltase, have a secondary function in digestion.3 These enzymes break down complex sugars into simple sugars which can be utilized by our bodies for energy. The enzyme sucrase acts on sucrose (a sugar) in food, breaking it down into glucose and fructose.3 Lactase breaks down the dairy sugar, lactose, into glucose and galactose.3 Maltase breaks down the sugar maltose into glucose.3

The digestive tract, which includes the stomach, small intestines, and large intestines, has varying pH levels throughout. The stomach's pH is very acidic while the pH of the intestines is alkaline. Because of this pH variation, the enzymes involved in the digestion process need to be optimally active at different pH levels.4 The chart below summarizes the optimum pH ranges in which CompleteGest®†'s different digestive enzymes are most active.

The measurement of enzyme potency in dietary supplements is more complex than measuring the potency of vitamins, minerals, or herbs. Accurate measurement depends on enzyme concentration, environment (pH and temperature), and substrate (the fuel for the enzyme).

There are many scientific systems used for measuring enzyme activity. The most common enzyme measurement systems are Food Chemical Codex (FCC), United States Pharmacoepia (USP), and Federal Internationale Pharmaceutique (FIP). Each different enzyme measurement system has an enzyme assay method with its own units of measurements.

Fig. 1. The photorespiratory carbon and nitrogen cycle typical for C3 plants in ambient air. Photorespiration starts with the oxygenase reaction of Rubisco (1). (2) Phosphoglycollate phosphatase, (3) glycollate oxidase, (4) glutamate:glyoxylate aminotransferase, (5) serine:glyoxylate aminotransferase, (6) glycine decarboxylase, (7a, b) NAD malate dehydrogenase, (8) hydroxypyruvate reductase, (9) glycerate kinase, (10) glutamine synthetase, (11) glutamate synthase.

There are numerous reports on the improvement of growth and crop yield of C3 plants in an atmosphere containing elevated.This is mainly based on a faster biomass production due to an increase in CO2 assimilation rates and a suppression of photorespiration.

Fig. 2. CO2 concentrating mechanism in a NADP malic enzyme C4 plant, such as maize, sugar cane or Sorghum. CO2 is converted to HCO3- by carbonic anhydrase (1) in the cytosol of the mesophyll cells and fixed by oxygen-insensitive PEPC (2). The oxaloacetate formed is imported into the stroma of the mesophyll chloroplasts and reduced by NADP-MDH (3) using redox equivalents from non-cyclic electron transport. Malate is exported from the stroma in counter exchange with OAA catalysed by a malate/OAA transporter (4). In the mesophyll cell the concentration of malate is high, which allows diffusion along a concentration gradient to the bundle-sheath cells. Malate enters the bundle-sheath chloroplasts and is subjected to oxidative decarboxylation by NADP-ME (5). As bundle-sheath cells are gas tight, the high rate of oxidative malate decarboxylation results in a steep increase in the CO2 concentration in the vicinity of Rubisco (6) and hence a suppression of the oxygenase activity and photorespiration. As bundle-sheath chloroplasts of NADP-ME C4 plants lack photosystem II and hence the capacity for non-cyclic electron transport, NADPH formed by NADP-ME is utilized for the reduction of 50% of 3-PGA formed by Rubisco. The residual 3-PGA is exported by a C4-type TPT (7a) and is transferred to the mesophyll chloroplasts, imported into the stroma via the TPT (7b) and reduced to triose phosphates. Pyruvate, the product of malate decarboxylation also diffuses into mesophyll cells, enters the chloroplasts via a pyruvate transporter (8) and the primary inorganic carbon acceptor PEP is regenerated by PPDK (9). The PPi released by this reaction is cleaved by pyrophosphatase (10) and the AMP converted to ADP by adenylate kinase (11). Hence, for the regeneration of PEP an additional two ATP are required. PEP is exported from the chloroplast via the PPT (12). For the sake of clarity not all cofactors are shown.

Fig. 3. (A) Induced C4 cycle in the submerged aquatic plant Hydrilla verticillata without ‘Kranz’ anatomy. (1) CA, (2) PEPC, (3) NAD-MDH, (4) NADP-MDH, (5) NADP-ME, (6) Rubisco, (7) PPDK, (8) PPT. (B) Genetically engineered single cell CO2 concentrating mechanism in transgenic tobacco plants. The transformants contain all combinations of C4-cycle enzymes (PEPC, PEPCK, NADP-ME, PPDK or PEPS as well as the PPT). For the sake of clarity not all cofactors are shown.

Fig. 4. Role of PEPC in the anaplerotic provision of carbon skeletons for amino acid biosynthesis in leaves of C3 plants. (1) Triose phosphate/phosphate translocator, (2) PEPC, (3) NAD-MDH, (4) NADP-MDH, (5) pyruvate kinase, (6) NAD-ME, (7) pyruvate dehydrogenase, (8) NAD isocitrate dehydrogenase, (9) NADP isocitrate dehydrogenase. For the sake of clarity not all cofactors are shown.

The plant enzyme can work before digesting in a beginning of the stomach, as a result can save the burden of many body need enzyme.General enzyme category,such as the digest  (starch ,egg white ,the solution fat ),, digest the process, the starch in resolve carbohydrate in the saliva, the egg white in help the peptone in the stomach liquid, liquid,the bowel liquid.The metabolism enzyme then takes charge of all organs,organizations,cells inside the body, they are responsible for making use of the protein,carbohydrate and fat to construct the body.

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Enzyme produces result only the ability to take place the function to the special some material.The skin same also has various enzyme dispersionses in each one, help the rebirth and sebum gland,the sweat gland of the epidermis cell to secrete the function.But enlarge along with the age, enzyme will reduce relatively, the skin condition will be on the decline gradually road.Join it into the hairdressing product and then can strengthen the function of the skin, improve the condition of the skin.Enzyme that applies to different skin problem in the cosmetics mainly has 3:The egg white resolves the fat that enzyme,fat resolves enzyme to resolve the anti- of enzyme to oxidize enzyme.

The egg white decomposition enzyme mainly aims at the bad skin of the keratin metabolism, because it can clean the dirt of the skin surface and hair bag,the sebum gland, cleaning the aging keratin of the skin gently, making the skin recovered the flexibility, becoming smooth and delicate.It usually is in the cosmetics that increases in the cleansing article or goes to the keratin.The fat resolves enzyme then the main function to secrete the prosperous skin in the grease, passing to resolve the skin up the grease of the surplus, sweeping the skin effectively, prevent pore jam, usually also increase in cleansing thing.Anti-'s oxidizing enzyme can repress the free radicals to the skin to cause of oxidize the injury, the aging speed of the defer skin, to have already started the beneficial of the aging skin.